Democracy in traditional terms has been about ensuring citizens remain at the center of decision making – ensured regularly via elections, townhalls etc. Now with many aspects of the country’s governance being tech-facilitated, digital democracy has become an evolving domain. From service delivery, citizen-data systems, civic resistance, and businesses, everything has shifted towards digital systems. It has also exponentially expanded the aspects of democracy amplifying citizen’s voice, participation and enabled them to become more informed, influencing and innovative. It is believed that technology has made the governance more efficient, transparent, inclusive and accessible, and created an even playing field for progress to all. However, newer challenges like online security, threats to individual privacy, mis/dis information, deep digital divide has become more prominent than ever before. The risk of unfair distribution of knowledge and resources, poor digital public infrastructure (DPI) etc are leading to opportunity gaps.
Digital Democracy for efficient and responsive governance
Internet penetration in Nepal stands around 71.68% in 2025. Nepal has been gradually developing a digital governance ecosystem through legal and institutional instruments. The key legal frameworks include Electronic Transaction Act (2008), that regulates electronic records and cybercrimes; the Data Protection Act (2022), that ensures accountability in handling personal data; and the draft Privacy Protection Bill, focused on safeguarding citizen privacy. Similarly, the E-Commerce Act guides online transactions and consumer protection; and Social Media Guidelines which regulates oversight of digital platforms. In addition to the laws, the Digital Nepal Framework has offered a national roadmap for digitalization across key sectors, while the E-Governance Board under the Office of the Prime Minister leads secure digital service integration, which is supported by an operational E-Governance Blueprint.
To improve service delivery, the government has introduced technologies such as the Nagarik App, which envisions centralizing access to essential public services in a single App. It has also launched a biometric-based smart identity card, National Identity Card, that contains citizen’s personal and demographic information and will serve as a one-stop verification document for all kinds of services. In a recent survey of Accountability Lab that assesses the digital democracy landscape of Nepal, 68%.2 percent respondents claimed to have a digital/online ID or government portal account – which indicates a good number of citizens are leveraging digital governance services.
One strong area of progress lies in online banking and digital payments, which has made mobile based payment options expand even to small vendors. For accountability, earlier efforts like Hello Sarkar — functioning as a digital grievance platform with a dedicated website, social media and telephone hotline — allowed citizens to be directly lodged. It was also replicated across different sub-national contexts. However, weak political will, technical gaps, and administrative limitations hindered its sustained implementation.
Overall, while legal and institutional structures are expanding in Nepal, they struggle to adapt to the fast-paced digital advancements. The government needs to build more agile systems and ensure stronger enforcements. There is also a need to ensure full interoperability and integration still need substantial improvement.
Digital Democracy for civic resistance and fuel to regime shift
Digital mediums have also been a powerful tool for political expression and civic mobilization in Nepal. As the public discourse shifts online, citizens – especially young people – are using virtual spaces to voice concerns, organize civic resistance and influence governance outcomes. Digital actors such as content creators, online journalists are shaping political narratives more persuasively and rapidly than traditional actors. Moreover, the mass campaigns once rooted in physical demonstrations have expanded to virtual platforms that bring citizens together enabling them to connect across geography and set agendas.
The recent example of this is the September 2025 Gen-Z Uprising in Nepal, where loosely connected individual youths and youth groups convened online to launch a massive protest against corruption on September 8, 2025. The trigger was also the blanket ban imposed on 26 social media platforms including Facebook and Twitter. The youths coordinated campaigns via alternative channels like Reddit and Discord to launch a September 8 protest demanding three key agendas – ending corruption, good governance and freedom of speech. But the state suppression on the protest led to a political upheaval and ultimately paved the way for an interim citizen-backed government – with a Prime Minister selected by over 15,000 youths in a Discord poll. It is probably the first instance in the world with the head of government chosen via social platforms. However, this case strongly reflects how digital tools can redefine civic power and political legitimacy in the digital age.
Digital democracy as a means to build and expand civil society power
For civil society organizations (CSOs), digital platforms provide a convenient and cost-effective way to reach a wider audience and advocate for rights-based issues. CSOs use it for mass-sensitization – on issues ranging from hygiene to education and other social concerns. Many CSOs are innovatively making use of digital mediums to cater to the younger people. Youth-led CSOs such as Speak Up Nepal, have established an online petition platform to convene young people, amplify their concerns, and channel them to decision-makers. As both the usage and threats of digital platforms increases, newer CSOs are also being registered specifically to advance digital literacy, digital skills, and governance of online space. Initiatives such as the Youth Internet Governance Forum Nepal and Digital Rights Nepal are building youth capacities on cyber safety, security, and working alongside the government for a secure and inclusive digital infrastructure. Open Co Hub, on the other hand, creates safe space for change makers, as a sounding board to catalyze innovation, collaboration for collective action.
However, CSOs themselves have not been able to fully capitalize on digital platforms for a variety of reasons. Accountability Lab’s recent survey assessing the digital capabilities of CSOs in Nepal found that 58% of respondents rated their digital capacity as medium, while only 27% reported having high digital capacity. It shows despite increasing reliance on digital tools in governance, many CSOs still face gaps in skills, infrastructure, and strategic use of technology. Many especially at the grassroots level lack the necessary digital literacy, skills, and resources to adapt to rapid technological changes. Moreover, increased reliance on digital tools also carries the risk of reinforcing exclusion, as marginalized groups who have limited access to devices, connectivity, or digital skills may be left behind. Ensuring digital inclusion therefore remains a critical challenge for CSOs in Nepal as they expand their engagement in the digital sphere.
Challenges to Digital Democracy in Nepal
The challenges to digital democracy in Nepal remain significant – both at foundational and socio-economic levels, which is directly impacting the vision of an inclusive and accountable digital governance. Here are some key barriers to digital democracy in Nepal based on our assessment and stakeholder consultations.
Digital divide – The internet and broadband connectivity may seem statistically high in Nepal. But the affordability and purchasing power remain low. On one hand, the difficult terrain makes the connectivity challenging in remote areas and on the other hand, even those in the accessible areas struggle to pay for internet services and devices. Moreover, social and gender inequalities further increase the digital divide as men and urban populations are more likely to be internet users than women and rural groups. It limits these group’s access to information, services further widening the gap.
Misinformation and disinformation – The proliferation of digital platforms has been rapid in Nepal, but the regulation and media literacy hasn’t been able to catch up. There are numerous social media pages and online portals that specifically target sensational content for quick engagement, fueling misinformation. And with low media literacy among Nepali, such content further accelerates its spread. Though few CSOs such as Nepal Fact Check conduct fact checking to minimise the impacts, the hold of mis/disinformation has been way wider in Nepali society.
Polarization and manipulation – The mainstream digital platforms including facebook and tiktok, have become primary platforms that set political narratives and discourses. But the algorithms of these platforms are also creating echo chambers that are exposing users to selective viewpoints and deepening biases. It is also being observed in the political transition phase post Gen-Z uprising where political actors are using the platforms to amplify divisive rhetoric and heighten political polarisation.
Cybersecurity and online harms – The online cyber threats are ever increasing in Nepal. The government sites have been easy targets time and again that jeopardize citizen data and sensitive state information. Cases of cyber-attacks in Nepal have increased by 380% annually. In addition, online gender-based violence, hate speech and harassment disproportionately target women and marginalized communities. Women activists and leaders have often been easy targets of online bullying. But due to limited reporting mechanisms and effective legal provisions, these harms often go unaddressed. Even in our survey with a relatively small sample, 22.7% of respondents reported experiencing online harassment or abuse in the past 12 months.
Lack of digital skills – A significant portion of Nepali public still lacks adequate digital literacy and skills to leverage digital infrastructure. While younger generations are being exposed to school curricula, older adults and individuals from rural or disadvantaged backgrounds lack the exposure. The limited space for training opportunities and practical digital tools keeps many individuals from leveraging technology for entrepreneurship, employment, and access to services. Thus, without targeted efforts to enhance digital skills, digital transformation risks expanding the existing socio-economic inequalities in Nepal.
Conclusion:
Digital transformation has been positioned as one of the top priorities in Nepal, with an aim of building a paperless, efficient and accountable governance system. However, a series of structural and socio-economic challenges have to be addressed first to ensure an inclusive digital democracy as envisioned. There is a need to invest in robust legal frameworks and expand affordable and secure digital infrastructure that empowers citizens across all regions and identities. Meanwhile, the country’s priority should also be to ensure that citizens have the skills and access required to fully utilize the digital transformations. Now, as Nepal stands at a political crossroads – with an interim government in place and elections approaching – the advocacy for a safe, secure and inclusive digital governance system is critical.